Document Type : Research Article
Author
Assistant Professor, Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran.
Abstract
Despite being among the most pressing issues confronting contemporary human society, international crimes have, for understandable reasons, received relatively little attention within criminological studies. The present study seeks to provide a criminological analysis of such crimes. Methodologically, this analysis is grounded in Georg Simmel’s theory of social forms, according to which the forms of sociation and conflict, along with their constituent elements, are theoretically explained in light of psychological and historical contexts. This theoretical framework offers an analytical foundation for understanding the emergence of international conflicts. The central concept derived from this analysis is the formation of a mental world in which the “self” is regarded as superior—on historical, national, racial, religious, or sectarian grounds—leading to the perception of the “other” as inferior. Consequently, an objective world of intolerance emerges, resulting in the denial, elimination, and violation of the other’s territory, identity, and physical and psychological integrity, culminating in the commission of international crimes. This theoretical framework helps explain the criminogenic dynamics behind, inter alia, the First and Second World Wars, the conflicts in Yugoslavia and Rwanda, and the genocidal acts committed against the Palestinian people.
Keywords
Main Subjects
English
Aydın-Aitchison, Andy. (2014). Criminological Theory and International Crimes: Examining the Potential. Ilias Bantekas, Emmanouela Mylonaki (eds) Criminological Approaches to International Criminal Law (Cambridge University Press ), pp. 22-49, Edinburgh School of Law Research Paper No. 2018/10, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3157568 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.3157568
Britannica Editors. "Zionism". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Aug. 2025, Accessed 20 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zionism.
Burg, Stephen L. (1996). "CHAPTER 2. Ethnic Conflict and the Euro-Atlantic Community: The Yugoslav Crisis". War or Peace?: Nationalism, Democracy, and American Foreign Policy in Post- Communist Europe, New York, USA: New York University Press, pp. 43-128. https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814725030.003.0007
Cartwright, Mark. “The Causes of WWII.” World History Encyclopedia, 26 Mar 2024, Accessed 13 September 2025. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2409/the-causes-of-wwii/.
Clay, Daniel, Lemarchand, René. "Rwanda". Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 Sep. 2025, Accessed 17 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/place/Rwanda.
David Churchill (2018), “What is ‘Historical Criminology’? Thinking Historically about Crime and Justice”, British Society of Criminology, No. 82.
Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, (2025, February 25). Georg Simmel. Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed 7 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georg-Simmel.
Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Rwanda genocide of 1994". Encyclopedia Britannica, 31 Jul. 2025, Accessed 17 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/event/Rwanda-genocide-of-1994.
Frank McDonough (1997), The Origins of the First and Second World Wars, Cambridge University Press.
Gagnon, V. P. (1995). "7. Historical Roots of the Yugoslav Conflict". International Organizations and Ethnic Conflict, edited by Milton J. Esman and Shibley Z. Telhami, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, pp. 179-197. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501734298-010
Harrendorf, Stefan. (2014). “How Can Criminology Contribute to an Explanation of International Crimes?”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Volume 12, Issue 2, https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mqu020.
Hintjens Helen M. (1999). “Explaining the 1994 genocide in Rwanda”. The Journal of Modern African Studies; 37(2): 241-286. doi:10.1017/S0022278X99003018
Hopkins Burke, Roger (2014), An Introduction to Criminological Theory, Fourth edition, Routledg.
Hughes, Thomas A., Royde-Smith, John Graham (2025). “World War II”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Sep. 2025. Accessed 13 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II.
Iain Channing, Alex Tepperman, Accessed 28 August 2025, The Journal of Historical Criminology: Mission Statement, https://journalofhistoricalcriminology.pubpub.org/
ICTR, The Genocide, Accessed 17 September 2025. https://unictr.irmct.org/en/genocide.
ICTY, About the ICTY, The Former Yugoslavia, Accessed 16 September 2025. https://www.icty.org/en/about/what-former-yugoslavia/conflicts
Lampe, John R., Allcock, John B.. "Yugoslavia". Encyclopedia Britannica, 6 Sep. 2025. Accessed 16 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/place/Yugoslavia-former-federated-nation-1929-2003.
Miller, Stuart T. (1988). The Road to War 1936–9. In: Mastering Modern European History. Macmillan Master Series. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-19580-0_28
Nijim, Mohammed. 2022. “Genocide in Palestine: Gaza as a Case Study.” The International Journal of Human Rights 27 (1): 165–200. https://10.1080/13642987.2022.2065261 .
Norwich University, Six Causes of World War I, Accessed 7 September 2025, https://online.norwich.edu/online/about/resource-library/six-causes-world-war-i
Per Jørgen Ystehede. (2025). “What is History for Criminology?” or “What we Talk about when we Talk about Historical Criminology.” The Journal of Historical Criminology, volume 1, Issue 1.
Rached, Haifa, Damien Short & John Docker. (2014). “Nakba Memoricide: Genocide Studies and the Zionist/Israeli Genocide of Palestine”, Holy Land Studies, Volume 13, Issue 1, https://doi.org/10.3366/hls.2014.0076.
Rasler, Karen, and William R. Thompson (2014). “Strategic Rivalries and Complex Causality in 1914.” The Outbreak of the First World War: Structure, Politics, and Decision-Making. Ed. Jack S. Levy and John A. Vasquez. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 65–86. Print.
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Preamble.
Rothe, Dawn L., and Christopher W. Mullins. (2009). “Toward a Criminology of International Criminal Law: An Integrated Theory of International Criminal Violations.” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 33 (1): 97–118. https://10.1080/01924036.2009.9678798.
Rummel, Erika and Eric MacPhail, (2024). “Desiderius Erasmus”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2024/entries/erasmus/.
Aydın-Aitchison, Andy. (2014). Criminological Theory and International Crimes: Examining the Potential. Ilias Bantekas, Emmanouela Mylonaki (eds) Criminological Approaches to International Criminal Law (Cambridge University Press ), pp. 22-49, Edinburgh School of Law Research Paper No. 2018/10, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3157568 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.3157568
Britannica Editors. "Zionism". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Aug. 2025, Accessed 20 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zionism.
Burg, Stephen L. (1996). "CHAPTER 2. Ethnic Conflict and the Euro-Atlantic Community: The Yugoslav Crisis". War or Peace?: Nationalism, Democracy, and American Foreign Policy in Post- Communist Europe, New York, USA: New York University Press, pp. 43-128. https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814725030.003.0007
Cartwright, Mark. “The Causes of WWII.” World History Encyclopedia, 26 Mar 2024, Accessed 13 September 2025. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2409/the-causes-of-wwii/.
Clay, Daniel, Lemarchand, René. "Rwanda". Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 Sep. 2025, Accessed 17 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/place/Rwanda.
David Churchill (2018), “What is ‘Historical Criminology’? Thinking Historically about Crime and Justice”, British Society of Criminology, No. 82.
Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, (2025, February 25). Georg Simmel. Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed 7 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georg-Simmel.
Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Rwanda genocide of 1994". Encyclopedia Britannica, 31 Jul. 2025, Accessed 17 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/event/Rwanda-genocide-of-1994.
Frank McDonough (1997), The Origins of the First and Second World Wars, Cambridge University Press.
Gagnon, V. P. (1995). "7. Historical Roots of the Yugoslav Conflict". International Organizations and Ethnic Conflict, edited by Milton J. Esman and Shibley Z. Telhami, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, pp. 179-197. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501734298-010
Harrendorf, Stefan. (2014). “How Can Criminology Contribute to an Explanation of International Crimes?”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Volume 12, Issue 2, https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mqu020.
Hintjens Helen M. (1999). “Explaining the 1994 genocide in Rwanda”. The Journal of Modern African Studies; 37(2): 241-286. doi:10.1017/S0022278X99003018
Hopkins Burke, Roger (2014), An Introduction to Criminological Theory, Fourth edition, Routledg.
Hughes, Thomas A., Royde-Smith, John Graham (2025). “World War II”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Sep. 2025. Accessed 13 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II.
Iain Channing, Alex Tepperman, Accessed 28 August 2025, The Journal of Historical Criminology: Mission Statement, https://journalofhistoricalcriminology.pubpub.org/
ICTR, The Genocide, Accessed 17 September 2025. https://unictr.irmct.org/en/genocide.
ICTY, About the ICTY, The Former Yugoslavia, Accessed 16 September 2025. https://www.icty.org/en/about/what-former-yugoslavia/conflicts
Lampe, John R., Allcock, John B.. "Yugoslavia". Encyclopedia Britannica, 6 Sep. 2025. Accessed 16 September 2025. https://www.britannica.com/place/Yugoslavia-former-federated-nation-1929-2003.
Miller, Stuart T. (1988). The Road to War 1936–9. In: Mastering Modern European History. Macmillan Master Series. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-19580-0_28
Nijim, Mohammed. 2022. “Genocide in Palestine: Gaza as a Case Study.” The International Journal of Human Rights 27 (1): 165–200. https://10.1080/13642987.2022.2065261 .
Norwich University, Six Causes of World War I, Accessed 7 September 2025, https://online.norwich.edu/online/about/resource-library/six-causes-world-war-i
Per Jørgen Ystehede. (2025). “What is History for Criminology?” or “What we Talk about when we Talk about Historical Criminology.” The Journal of Historical Criminology, volume 1, Issue 1.
Rached, Haifa, Damien Short & John Docker. (2014). “Nakba Memoricide: Genocide Studies and the Zionist/Israeli Genocide of Palestine”, Holy Land Studies, Volume 13, Issue 1, https://doi.org/10.3366/hls.2014.0076.
Rasler, Karen, and William R. Thompson (2014). “Strategic Rivalries and Complex Causality in 1914.” The Outbreak of the First World War: Structure, Politics, and Decision-Making. Ed. Jack S. Levy and John A. Vasquez. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 65–86. Print.
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Preamble.
Rothe, Dawn L., and Christopher W. Mullins. (2009). “Toward a Criminology of International Criminal Law: An Integrated Theory of International Criminal Violations.” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 33 (1): 97–118. https://10.1080/01924036.2009.9678798.
Rummel, Erika and Eric MacPhail, (2024). “Desiderius Erasmus”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2024/entries/erasmus/.
French
Julian Damon, (2005) . La pensée de... Georg Simmel (1858-1918) Informations sociales, n° 123(3). https://shs.cairn.info/revue-informations-sociales-2005-3-page-111?lang=fr. https://doi.org/10.3917/inso.123.0111.
Matthieu Abgrall, (2024), «Rousseau, la guerre et l’État dans les relations internationales», Institut Rousseau, https://institut-rousseau.fr/rousseau-la-guerre-et-letat-dans-les-relations-internationales/.
Union européenne, Histoire de l'UE, Consulté 21 juil. 25. https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/history-eu_fr.
Julian Damon, (2005) . La pensée de... Georg Simmel (1858-1918) Informations sociales, n° 123(3). https://shs.cairn.info/revue-informations-sociales-2005-3-page-111?lang=fr. https://doi.org/10.3917/inso.123.0111.
Matthieu Abgrall, (2024), «Rousseau, la guerre et l’État dans les relations internationales», Institut Rousseau, https://institut-rousseau.fr/rousseau-la-guerre-et-letat-dans-les-relations-internationales/.
Union européenne, Histoire de l'UE, Consulté 21 juil. 25. https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/history-eu_fr.
German
Bergmann, Jörg. (2011), "Von der Wechselwirkung zur Interaktion – Georg Simmel und die Mikrosoziologie heute". Georg Simmels große «Soziologie»: Eine kritische Sichtung nach hundert Jahren, edited by Hartmann Tyrell, Otthein Rammstedt and Ingo Meyer, Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. Zugriff am 1. September 2025. https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/fakultaeten/soziologie/fakultaet/person
en/emeriti/bergmann/publikationen/pdf/Bergmann_2011_Georg_Simmel_und_die_Mikrosoziologie_heute.pdf.
George Simmel (1908), Soziologie, Untersuchungen über die Formen der Vergesellschaftung, Leipzig, Verlag von Duncker & Humblot.
Ingo Meyer, (2018), Georg Simmel, Die Formen der Vergesellschaftung und die Kunst der Unterscheidung. Zugriff am 31. Januar 2025. https://www.soziopolis.de/georg-simmel.html.
Bergmann, Jörg. (2011), "Von der Wechselwirkung zur Interaktion – Georg Simmel und die Mikrosoziologie heute". Georg Simmels große «Soziologie»: Eine kritische Sichtung nach hundert Jahren, edited by Hartmann Tyrell, Otthein Rammstedt and Ingo Meyer, Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. Zugriff am 1. September 2025. https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/fakultaeten/soziologie/fakultaet/person
en/emeriti/bergmann/publikationen/pdf/Bergmann_2011_Georg_Simmel_und_die_Mikrosoziologie_heute.pdf.
George Simmel (1908), Soziologie, Untersuchungen über die Formen der Vergesellschaftung, Leipzig, Verlag von Duncker & Humblot.
Ingo Meyer, (2018), Georg Simmel, Die Formen der Vergesellschaftung und die Kunst der Unterscheidung. Zugriff am 31. Januar 2025. https://www.soziopolis.de/georg-simmel.html.
In Persian
Aitchison, Andy. (2018). Chapter One: Criminological Theory and International Crimes. Translated by Amir Irani. In Ilias Bantekas & Emanouela Mylonaki, Criminological Approaches to International Criminal Law. Translated by a group of criminal law researchers, edited by Hamidreza Nikookar. Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation.
Association of Tehran Jews. The Torah: Book of Genesis.
Bantekas, Ilias. (2018). Introductory Chapter: Interdisciplinary Criminology of International Criminal Law. Translated by Ruhoddin Kordaliwand & Hossein Aghaei Jannat-Makan. In Ilias Bantekas & Emanouela Mylonaki, Criminological Approaches to International Criminal Law. Translated by a group of criminal law researchers, edited by Hamidreza Nikookar. Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation.
Adams, Paul. (2024). “The Previously Unseen Map That Promised Peace in the Middle East.” BBC Persian. Retrieved October 14, 2025, from https://www.bbc.com/persian/articles/ckgd39yvxgzo
Jahanbegloo, Ramin. (1995). Modernity, Democracy and Intellectuals. First Edition. Tehran: Markaz Publishing.
Friedrich, David. (2017). “Chapter Two: Toward a Criminology of International Crimes: Presenting a Conceptual and Foundational Framework.” In Alette Smeulers & Roelof Haveman, Supranational Criminology: Toward a Criminology of International Crimes. Edited by Hamidreza Nikookar. First Edition. Tehran: Mizan Publishing.
Razavifard, Behzad. (2015). International Criminal Law. Second Edition. Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation.
Razavifard, Behzad. (2025). “Criminology of International Crimes and Offences.” Biannual Journal of Research and Development in Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 2, No. 3.
Simmel, Georg. (2024 [1971]). On Individuality and Social Forms. Selected and introduced by Donald Levine. Translated by Shahnaz Mosammiparast. Fifth Edition. Tehran: Sales Publishing.
Ziaei Bigdeli, Mohammadreza. (2022). International Humanitarian Law. Sixth Edition. Tehran: Ganj-e Danesh Publishing.
Fleck, Dieter. (2016). The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts. Edited by Seyed Ghasem Zamani & Nader Saed (Persian edition). Fourth Edition. Tehran: Shahr-e Danesh Institute for Legal Studies and Research.
Qorchi Beigi, Majid. (2018). “Criminology of State Crime and the Neglect of Criminology.” p. 929 in Ali-Hossein Najafi Abrandabadi (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Criminal Legal Sciences, Vol. 3. Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation.
Kant, Immanuel. (2025). Perpetual Peace. Translated by Mohammad Sabouri. Second Edition. Tehran: Parseh Translation and Publishing House.
Craib, Ian. (2020). Classical Social Theory: An Introduction to the Thought of Marx, Weber, Durkheim and Simmel. Translated by Shahnaz Mosammiparast. Fourteenth Edition. Tehran: Agah Publishing.
Najafi Abrandabadi, Ali-Hossein. (2017). “International Crimes and Criminology.” Preface in Alette Smeulers & Roelof Haveman, Supranational Criminology: Toward a Criminology of International Crimes. Edited by Hamidreza Nikookar. First Edition. Tehran: Mizan Publishing.
Aitchison, Andy. (2018). Chapter One: Criminological Theory and International Crimes. Translated by Amir Irani. In Ilias Bantekas & Emanouela Mylonaki, Criminological Approaches to International Criminal Law. Translated by a group of criminal law researchers, edited by Hamidreza Nikookar. Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation.
Association of Tehran Jews. The Torah: Book of Genesis.
Bantekas, Ilias. (2018). Introductory Chapter: Interdisciplinary Criminology of International Criminal Law. Translated by Ruhoddin Kordaliwand & Hossein Aghaei Jannat-Makan. In Ilias Bantekas & Emanouela Mylonaki, Criminological Approaches to International Criminal Law. Translated by a group of criminal law researchers, edited by Hamidreza Nikookar. Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation.
Adams, Paul. (2024). “The Previously Unseen Map That Promised Peace in the Middle East.” BBC Persian. Retrieved October 14, 2025, from https://www.bbc.com/persian/articles/ckgd39yvxgzo
Jahanbegloo, Ramin. (1995). Modernity, Democracy and Intellectuals. First Edition. Tehran: Markaz Publishing.
Friedrich, David. (2017). “Chapter Two: Toward a Criminology of International Crimes: Presenting a Conceptual and Foundational Framework.” In Alette Smeulers & Roelof Haveman, Supranational Criminology: Toward a Criminology of International Crimes. Edited by Hamidreza Nikookar. First Edition. Tehran: Mizan Publishing.
Razavifard, Behzad. (2015). International Criminal Law. Second Edition. Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation.
Razavifard, Behzad. (2025). “Criminology of International Crimes and Offences.” Biannual Journal of Research and Development in Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 2, No. 3.
Simmel, Georg. (2024 [1971]). On Individuality and Social Forms. Selected and introduced by Donald Levine. Translated by Shahnaz Mosammiparast. Fifth Edition. Tehran: Sales Publishing.
Ziaei Bigdeli, Mohammadreza. (2022). International Humanitarian Law. Sixth Edition. Tehran: Ganj-e Danesh Publishing.
Fleck, Dieter. (2016). The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts. Edited by Seyed Ghasem Zamani & Nader Saed (Persian edition). Fourth Edition. Tehran: Shahr-e Danesh Institute for Legal Studies and Research.
Qorchi Beigi, Majid. (2018). “Criminology of State Crime and the Neglect of Criminology.” p. 929 in Ali-Hossein Najafi Abrandabadi (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Criminal Legal Sciences, Vol. 3. Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation.
Kant, Immanuel. (2025). Perpetual Peace. Translated by Mohammad Sabouri. Second Edition. Tehran: Parseh Translation and Publishing House.
Craib, Ian. (2020). Classical Social Theory: An Introduction to the Thought of Marx, Weber, Durkheim and Simmel. Translated by Shahnaz Mosammiparast. Fourteenth Edition. Tehran: Agah Publishing.
Najafi Abrandabadi, Ali-Hossein. (2017). “International Crimes and Criminology.” Preface in Alette Smeulers & Roelof Haveman, Supranational Criminology: Toward a Criminology of International Crimes. Edited by Hamidreza Nikookar. First Edition. Tehran: Mizan Publishing.
)