Document Type : Research Article
Author
Associate Professor, Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Faculty of Administrative Sciences and Economics, Arak University, Arak, Iran.
Abstract
The commission of cyberattacks by terrorists, in addition to its growing impact on the economic, social, political, and security dimensions, poses the risk of violating the security of critical infrastructures as strategic international targets. Therefore, the International Criminal Court (ICC) should expand its jurisdiction to address such crimes, thereby enabling a response to transnational threats affecting global security. To this end, reforms in the ICC Statute and the criminalization of cyberterrorism, particularly through the development of clear criteria for identifying, prosecuting, and punishing perpetrators of these crimes, as well as strengthening international cooperation in cybersecurity, are essential. In this context, this study, using a descriptive-analytical approach, aims to answer the question: "Is it feasible to design a model for expanding the jurisdiction of the ICC to address cyberterrorism against critical infrastructures?" Accordingly, the research first examines the feasibility of expanding the ICC’s jurisdiction in this area and its impact on international security, and then assesses the necessity of reforms in the ICC Statute for the criminalization of cyberterrorism and the design of a necessary legal model for identifying, prosecuting, and punishing the perpetrators of such crimes, in line with enhancing global security and facilitating international cooperation.
Keywords
- International Criminal Court Jurisdiction
- Cyberterrorism
- Protection of Critical Infrastructures
- Security of Cyber Platforms
- International Cooperation
Main Subjects
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Guillaume, G. (2004). Terrorism and international law. The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 53(3), 537–548.
Gupta, I. & Deol, P. (2025). The role of International Criminal Court (ICC) jurisdiction in prosecuting cyberterrorism. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 6(5), 12491–12498. https://ijrpr.com/uploads/V6ISSUE5/IJRPR46404.pdf
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Hui, K.-L., Kim, S. H., & Wang, Q.-H. (2017). Cybercrime deterrence and international legislation. MIS Quarterly, 41(2), 497-524. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26629724
Ilchyshyn, N., Brusakova, O., Krykun, V., & Myroshnychenko, Y. (2023). International legal cooperation in the field of criminal justice: New challenges and ways to overcome them. Journal of Law and Sustainable Development, 11(4), 754-771. https://doi.org/10.55908/sdgs.v11i4.767
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Jimmy, F. (2024). The role of artificial intelligence in predicting cyber threats. International Journal of Scientific Research and Management (IJSRM), 11(8), 935–953. https://doi.org/10.18535/ijsrm/v11i08.ec04
Kalk, Wolfgang. (2024). Double Standards: International Criminal Law and the West. Translated by Fereydoun Jafari and Jalaleddin Hasani, First Edition. Brussels (Belgium): Turkel Upsal. (In Persian)
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Kumar, A. (2024). Examining cybersecurity laws: Protecting critical infrastructure against emerging threats and global cybercrimes. Journal of Law and Intellectual Property Rights, 1(1), 21–29. https://jlipr.in/doc/Vol-1-No-1-2024/3_JLIPR_Vol%201%20%20No%201_Dec%202024.pdf
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Mahakherchagan, Alireza; Ardebili, Mohammad-Ali; Mahdavi-Sabet, Mohammad-Ali. (2025). Judicial Dualism in International Cyber Crimes within the Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court Prosecutor. Legal Research Journal, 24(41), 90-59. https://doi.org/10.48300/jlr.2023.388705.2304 (In Persian)
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Shamloo, Bagher; Hosseini, Mehdi. (2024). Disruptive Warfare Targeting Critical Infrastructure as a War Crime. Criminal Law Teachings, 27(21), 115-152. https://doi.org/10.30513/cld.2024.6134.2005 (In Persian)
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Sieber, U. (2006). International cooperation against terrorist use of the internet. International Review of Penal Law, 77, 395-449. https://doi.org/10.3917/ridp.773.0395
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Alabbadi, F. S., Al Amaren, E. M., & Aletein, S. I. (2020). International responsibility arising from cyberattacks in the light of the contemporary international law. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 16(1), 156–169. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4766562
Alkharman, J. A., & Hassan, I. (2023). Cyberterrorism and self-defense in the framework of international law. Journal of Law and Sustainable Development, 11(8), e1430. https://doi.org/0009-0004-3056-9748
Arnell, P., & Faturoti, B. (2023). The prosecution of cybercrime – why transnational and extraterritorial jurisdiction should be resisted. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, 37(1), 29-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600869.2022.2061888
Asghar, M. U., Javed, M. H., & Azhar, S. (2025). The regulation of cybercrime in international law: Discussing the legal frameworks and challenges in regulating cybercrime. Indus Journal of Social Sciences, 3(2), 417-430. https://doi.org/10.59075/ijss.v3i2.1267
Azmi, A. N., & Shabrina, S. (2023). Challenges of universal adoption of the Budapest Convention on cybercrime. The 5th International Conference on Technology, Education, and Social Science, 1(1), 1-10.
Bartoli, L. (2025). Cybersecurity and the fight against cybercrime: Partners or competitors? European Journal of Risk Regulation, 16(2), 498 - 513. https://doi.org/10.1017/err.2025.31
Buçaj, E., & Idrizaj, K. (2024). The need for cybercrime regulation on a global scale by the international law and cyber convention. Multidisciplinary Reviews, 8(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.31893/multirev.2025024
Buisman, C., & Alfatlawi, A. A. (2025). Cyber attacks under international criminal law: Challenges in investigation and prosecution. In The guide to understanding aggressive cyber-attacks: A study within an effective legal and political perspective (pp. 24–30). Zain Legal Publications. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4959031
Cristiano, F., Broeders, D., & Weggemans, D. (Eds.). (2020). Countering cyber terrorism in a time of ‘war on words’: Kryptonite for the protection of digital rights? The Hague: The Hague Program for Cyber Norms. https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A3069991/view
De Silva De Alwis, R. (2025). Gendering the new international convention on cybercrimes and new norms on artificial intelligence and emerging technologies. Washington Journal of Law, Technology & Arts, 20(2), 1-41. https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1350&context=wjlta
Edwards, K. (2023). The ICC and the prosecution of global cyber war crimes. Denver Journal of International Law & Policy. Retrieved from https://djilp.org/the-icc-and-the-prosecution-of-global-cyber-war-crimes/
Einarson, Tarj. (2023). The Concept of Global Crimes in International Law. Translated by Fereydoun Jafari, First Edition. Brussels (Belgium): Turkel Upsal. (In Persian)
Fahmy, W. (2024). The cybercrime acts and the electronic transaction in international law. Economics Law and Policy, 7(1), 18–41. https://doi.org/10.22158/elp.v7n1p18
Farshasayed, Parviz; Jalali, Mahmood; Ghodrazi, Mahnaz. (2022). The Necessity of Strengthening Cybersecurity in the Energy Sector by Governments. Energy Law Studies, 8(1), 173-193. https://doi.org/10.22059/jrels.2022.316656.413 (In Persian)
Fidler, D. P. (2015). Whither the Web?: International law, cybersecurity, and critical infrastructure protection. Maurer School of Law: Indiana University, 8-20. https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3452&context=facpub
Fidler, M. (2025). Fragmentation of international cybercrime law. Utah Law Review, 3(4), 737–804. https://dc.law.utah.edu/ulr/vol2025/iss3/4/
Gervais, M. (2012). Cyber attacks and the laws of war. Journal of Law & Cyber Warfare, 1(1), 8–98. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26441233
George, A. S., Baskar, T., & Srikaanth, P. B. (2024). Cyber threats to critical infrastructure: Assessing vulnerabilities across key sectors. Partners Universal International Innovation Journal (PUIIJ), 2(1), 51–75. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10639463
Girard, R. N. (2023). The honeypot stings back: Entrapment in the age of cybercrime and a proposed pathway forward. Chicago Journal of International Law, 24(1), 187-223. https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1848&context=cjil
Guillaume, G. (2004). Terrorism and international law. The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 53(3), 537–548.
Gupta, I. & Deol, P. (2025). The role of International Criminal Court (ICC) jurisdiction in prosecuting cyberterrorism. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 6(5), 12491–12498. https://ijrpr.com/uploads/V6ISSUE5/IJRPR46404.pdf
Hakmeh, J. (2024). The UN convention on cybercrime: A milestone in cybercrime cooperation? Journal of Cyber Policy, 9(2), 125–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2024.2441549
Hui, K.-L., Kim, S. H., & Wang, Q.-H. (2017). Cybercrime deterrence and international legislation. MIS Quarterly, 41(2), 497-524. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26629724
Ilchyshyn, N., Brusakova, O., Krykun, V., & Myroshnychenko, Y. (2023). International legal cooperation in the field of criminal justice: New challenges and ways to overcome them. Journal of Law and Sustainable Development, 11(4), 754-771. https://doi.org/10.55908/sdgs.v11i4.767
Jayakumar, S. (2021). Cyber attacks by terrorists and other malevolent actors: Prevention and preparedness. With three case studies on Estonia, Singapore and the United States. In A. P. Schmid (Ed.), Handbook of terrorism prevention and preparedness (pp. 871–930). ICCT Press Publication.
Jimmy, F. (2024). The role of artificial intelligence in predicting cyber threats. International Journal of Scientific Research and Management (IJSRM), 11(8), 935–953. https://doi.org/10.18535/ijsrm/v11i08.ec04
Kalk, Wolfgang. (2024). Double Standards: International Criminal Law and the West. Translated by Fereydoun Jafari and Jalaleddin Hasani, First Edition. Brussels (Belgium): Turkel Upsal. (In Persian)
Kovalčík, M. (2024). Constitutional referrals by ordinary courts: A platform for judicial dialogue and another toolkit for judicial resistance? European Constitutional Law Review, 20(1), 52-81. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1574019624000087
Khakzad Shahandashti, Mohsen; Mirbad, Leila. (2024). A New Reading of International Peace and Security in the Light of the Fight Against Cyber Terrorism. International Research, 14(3), 179-204. https://doi.org/10.22034/irr.2024.463239.2557 (In Persian)
Kumar, A. (2024). Examining cybersecurity laws: Protecting critical infrastructure against emerging threats and global cybercrimes. Journal of Law and Intellectual Property Rights, 1(1), 21–29. https://jlipr.in/doc/Vol-1-No-1-2024/3_JLIPR_Vol%201%20%20No%201_Dec%202024.pdf
LeChette-Danberry, C. A. (2025). Cyberterrorism and international laws: Need for cyber inclusion (PhD dissertation). Walden University, College of Health Sciences and Public Policy. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=19456&context=dissertations
Mahakherchagan, Alireza; Ardebili, Mohammad-Ali; Bigzadeh, Ebrahim. (2023). Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court and the Prosecution of Cyber International Crimes in International Law. Criminal Law and Criminology Research, 11(21), 327-303. https://doi.org/10.22034/jclc.2023.389750.1827 (In Persian)
Mahakherchagan, Alireza; Ardebili, Mohammad-Ali; Mahdavi-Sabet, Mohammad-Ali. (2025). Judicial Dualism in International Cyber Crimes within the Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court Prosecutor. Legal Research Journal, 24(41), 90-59. https://doi.org/10.48300/jlr.2023.388705.2304 (In Persian)
Macidov, S. T. o. (2023). Prosecuting cybercrimes under international legal frameworks: Challenges and innovations. Futurity Economics & Law, 3(3), 80-96. https://doi.org/0000-0003-3541-6893
Matos, L. (2021). Cyberattacks as crimes against humanity and international responsibility of states. SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3953744
Namamian, Peyman. (2024). Global Legal Requirements for the Protection of Critical National Infrastructures Against Technological Terrorism Crimes. State and Law, 5(4), 46-25. https://doi.org/10.48315/qgl.2025.494372.1167 (In Persian)
Nasir, S. (2023). Exploring the effectiveness of cybersecurity training programs: Factors, best practices, and future directions. Advances in Multidisciplinary & Scientific Research Journal Publication, 2(1), 151–160. https://doi.org/10.22624/AIMS/CSEAN-SMART2023P18
Perloff-Gilest, A. (2018). Transnational cyber offenses: Overcoming jurisdictional challenges. The Yale Journal of International Law, 43, 191–227.
Qualters, M. M. (2023). Cyberwarfare: An international crime? Whether “cyberwarfare” is an issue that can be prosecuted before the ICC. Syracuse Law Review, 75. Retrieved from https://lawreview.syr.edu/cyberwarfare-an-international-crime-whether-cyberwarfare-is-an-issue-that-can-be-prosecuted-before-the-icc/
Rakha, N. A. (2024). Jurisdictional challenges of cybercrimes and the role of the International Criminal Court. Thematic Conference Proceedings, 14(3), 357–383. https://doi.org/10.1092/ejil/chy056
Rahman, M. M., & Das, T. K. (2024). Countering cyberattacks: Gaps in international law and prospects for overcoming them. Journal of Digital Technologies and Law, 2(4), 973–1002. https://doi.org/10.21202/jdtl.2024.46
Robo, Didier. (2024). International Criminal Law. Translated by Behzad Razavifar and Mohammad Faraji, Second Edition. Tehran: Mizan Legal Foundation. (In Persian)
Shamloo, Bagher; Hosseini, Mehdi. (2024). Disruptive Warfare Targeting Critical Infrastructure as a War Crime. Criminal Law Teachings, 27(21), 115-152. https://doi.org/10.30513/cld.2024.6134.2005 (In Persian)
Schjolberg, S. (2012). An international criminal tribunal for cyberspace (ICTC); Prosecution for the tribunal police investigation for the tribunal. Cybercrime Law. Retrieved from http://www.cybercrimelaw.net
Shackelford, S. J. (2020). Managing cyber attacks as a global collective action problem. In Governing new frontiers in the information age: Toward cyber peace (pp. 87-172). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108604000.004
Shariat-Baghery, Mohammad-Javad. (2023). International Criminal Law. First Edition. Tehran: Ganj-Danesh. (In Persian)
Sieber, U. (2006). International cooperation against terrorist use of the internet. International Review of Penal Law, 77, 395-449. https://doi.org/10.3917/ridp.773.0395
Sim, S. (2023). The development of digital technologies and cyber security threats. Sungshin Women’s University Center for East Asian Studies, 29(1), 197–238. https://doi.org/10.56022/ceas.2023.29.1.197
Snider, K. L. G., Hefetz, A., Shandler, R., & Canetti, D. (2025). Experimenting with threat: How cyberterrorism targeting critical infrastructure influences support for surveillance policies. Terrorism and Political Violence, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2025.2457746
Seidnasiri, Mohammad-Mehdi; Mirbad, Leila. (2024). Cyber-Technological Terrorism and Extremism: Legal and Security Challenges for the International Legal System. Political Legal Approaches Journal, 2(1), 15-27. https://doi.org/10.22084/qjpla.2025.30336.1008 (In Persian)
Stockton, P. N., & Golabek-Goldman, M. (2014). Prosecuting cybertterrorists: Applying traditional jurisdictional frameworks to a modern threat. Stanford Law & Policy Review, 25(3), 211-268.
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